Jungle Warfare 1 Course {JW1}

PART 1. GENERAL JUNGLE CONDITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND LIVING IN THE JUNGLE

The climate in jungles varies with location. Close to the equator, on most habitable planets, all seasons are nearly alike, with rains throughout the year; farther from the equator, jungles have distinct wet (monsoon) and dry seasons. Both zones have high temperatures, heavy rainfall (as much as 1,000 centimeters annually), and high humidity (90 %) throughout the year.

Severe weather also has an impact on tactical operations in the jungle. Jungle climates (high temperatures, high humidity, heavy rain) seriously affect:

• Men
• Clothing
• Equipment
• Weapons
• Vehicles
• Maintenance operations
• Training
• Tactics

TYPES OF JUNGLES

The jungle environment includes densely forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas, and swamps. Jungles are classified as primary or secondary jungles based on the terrain and vegetation.

PRIMARY JUNGLES

These are tropical forests. Depending on the type of trees growing in these forests, primary jungles are classified either as tropical rain forests or as deciduous forests.

Tropical Rain Forests - These consist mostly of large trees whose branches spread and lock together to form canopies. These canopies, which can exist at two or three different levels, may form as low as 10 meters from the ground. The canopies prevent sunlight from reaching the ground, causing a lack of undergrowth on the jungle floor. Extensive above-ground root systems and hanging vines are common. These conditions, combined with a wet and soggy surface, make vehicular traffic difficult. Foot movement is easier in tropical rain forests than in other types of jungle. Except where felled trees or construction make a gap in the canopy of the rain forest, observation from the air is nearly impossible. Ground observation is generally limited to about 50 meters.

Deciduous Forests - These are found in semitropical zones where there are both wet and dry seasons. In the wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the dry season, much of the foliage dies. Trees are generally less dense in deciduous forests than in rain forests. This allows more rain and sunlight to filter to the ground, producing thick undergrowth. In the wet season, with the trees in full leaf, observation both from the air and on the ground is limited. Movement is more difficult than in the rain forest. In the dry season, however, both observation and trafficability improve.

SECONDARY JUNGLES

These are found at the edge of the rain forest and the deciduous forest, and in areas where jungles have been cleared and abandoned. Secondary jungles appear when the ground has been repeatedly exposed to sunlight. These areas are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses, thorns, ferns, canes, and shrubs. Foot movement is extremely slow and difficult. Vegetation may reach to a height of 2 meters, or even more on some planets. This will limit observation to the front to only a few meters.

COMMON JUNGLE FEATURES

SWAMPS

These are common to all low jungle areas where there is water and poor drainage. There are two basic types of swamps--mangrove and palm (or the local planetary equivalents).

Mangrove Swamps - These are found in coastal areas wherever tides influence water flow. The mangrove is a shrub-like tree which grows 1 to 5 meters high. These trees have tangled root systems, both above and below the water level, which restrict movement to foot or small boats. Observation in mangrove swamps, both on the ground and from the air, is poor. Concealment is excellent.

Palm Swamps - These exist in both salt and fresh water areas. Like movement in the mangrove swamps, movement through palm swamps is mostly restricted to foot (sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic is nearly impossible except after extensive road construction by engineers. Observation and fields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment from both air and ground observation is excellent.

SAVANNA

This is a broad, open jungle grassland in which trees are scarce. The thick grass is broad-bladed and typically grows 1 to 5 meters high. Movement in the savanna is generally easier than in other types of jungle areas, especially for vehicles. The sharp-edged, dense grass and extreme heat make foot movement a slow and tiring process. Depending on the height of the grass, ground observation may vary from poor to good. Concealment from air observation is poor for both troops and vehicles.

BAMBOO

This grows in clumps of varying size in jungles throughout the tropics. Large stands of bamboo are excellent obstacles for wheeled or tracked vehicles. Troop movement through bamboo is slow, exhausting, and noisy. Troops should bypass bamboo stands if possible.

CULTIVATED AREAS

These exist in jungles throughout the tropics and range from large, well-planned and well-managed farms and plantations to small tracts cultivated by individual farmers. There are three general types of cultivated areas--rice paddies, plantations, and small farms.

Rice Paddies - These are flat, flooded fields in which rice—or the local planetary equivalent--is grown. Flooding of the fields is controlled by a network of dikes and irrigation ditches which make movement by vehicles difficult even when the fields are dry. Concealment is poor in rice paddies. Cover is limited to the dikes, and then only from ground fire. Observation and fields of fire are excellent. Foot movement is poor when the fields are wet because soldiers must wade through water about 1/2 meter deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry, foot movement becomes easier. The dikes, about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only obstacles.

Plantations - These are large farms or estates where tree crops, such as rubber and coconut, are grown. They are usually carefully planned and free of undergrowth (like a well-tended park). Movement through plantations is generally easy. Observation along the rows of trees is generally good. Concealment and cover can be found behind the trees, but soldiers moving down the cultivated rows are exposed.

Small Farms - These exist throughout the tropics. These small cultivated areas are usually hastily planned. After 1 or 2 years' use, they usually are abandoned, leaving behind a small open area which turns into secondary jungle. Movement through these areas may be difficult due to fallen trees and scrub brush.

Generally, observation and fields-of-fire are less restricted in cultivated areas than in uncultivated jungles. However, much of the natural cover and concealment are removed by cultivation, and troops will be more exposed in these areas.

LIVING IN THE JUNGLE

Soldiers must understand that the environment affects everyone. The degree to which soldiers are trained to live and fight in harsh environments will determine their unit's success or failure.

There is very little to fear from the jungle environment. Fear itself can be an enemy. Soldiers must be taught to control their fear of the jungle. A trooper overcome with fear is of little value in any situation. Soldiers in a jungle must learn that the most important thing is to keep their heads and calmly think out any situation.

JUNGLE HAZARDS

EFFECT OF CLIMATE

The discomforts of tropical climates are often exaggerated, but it is true that the heat is more persistent. In regions where the air contains a lot of moisture, the effect of the heat may seem worse than the same temperature in a dry climate. Many people experienced in jungle operations feel that the heat and discomfort in some cities in the summertime are worse than the climate in the jungle.

Strange as it may seem, there may be more suffering from cold in the tropics than from the heat. Of course, very low temperatures do not occur, but chilly days and nights are common. In some jungles, in winter months, the nights are cold enough to require a wool blanket or poncho liner for sleeping.

Rainfall in many parts of the tropics is much greater than that in most areas of the temperate zones. Tropical downpours usually are followed by clear skies, and in most places the rains are predictable at certain times of the day. Except in those areas where rainfall may be continuous during the rainy season, there are not many days when the sun does not shine part of the time.

People who live in the tropics usually plan their activities so that they are able to stay under shelter during the rainy and hotter portions of the day. After becoming used to it, most tropical dwellers prefer the constant climate of the torrid zones to the frequent weather changes in colder climates.

INSECTS

Disease-carrying insects (or insect analogues) are probably the most harmful of the tropical insects. Soldiers can contract a variety of diseases on the various planets in which the Legion may operate if proper precautions are not taken.

Precautions against disease include:

• Taking appropriate preventive medication
• Using insect repellent
• Wearing clothing that covers as much of the body as possible
• Using nets or screen at every opportunity
• Avoiding the worst-infested areas when possible

Biting and blood-sucking flying insects are most prevalent early at night and just before dawn. Soldiers must be especially cautious at these times. Disease carried by such insects is more common in populated areas than in uninhabited jungle, so soldiers must also be especially cautious when operating around villages. Mud packs applied to bites offer some relief from itching.

Stinging insects may be common in some places, but they will rarely attack unless their nests are disturbed. When a nest is disturbed, the troops must leave the area and reassemble at the last rally point. In case of stings, mud packs are helpful.

The larger centipedes, scorpions, or local equivalents can inflict stings which are painful but not usually fatal. They like dark places, so it is always advisable to shake out blankets before sleeping at night, and to make sure before dressing that they are not hidden in clothing or shoes. Spiders are commonly found in the jungle. Their bites may be painful, but are rarely serious. Ants can be dangerous to injured men lying on the ground and unable to move. Wounded soldiers should be placed in an area free of ants.

LEECHES

Leeches or local equivalent creatures are common in many jungle areas. They are found in swampy areas, streams, and moist jungle country. They are not usually poisonous, but their bites may become infected if not cared for properly. The small wound that they cause may provide a point of entry for the germs which cause tropical ulcers or "jungle sores." Soldiers operating in the jungle should watch for leeches on the body and brush them off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold, they should not be pulled off forcibly because part of the leech may remain in the skin. Leeches will release themselves if touched with insect repellent, a moist piece of tobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coal from a fire, or a few drops of alcohol.

Straps wrapped around the lower part of the legs (" leech straps") will prevent leeches from crawling up the legs and into the crotch area. Trousers should be securely tucked into the boots.

SNAKES

A soldier in the jungle probably will see very few snakes. When he does see one, the snake most likely will be making every effort to escape.

If a soldier should accidentally step on a snake or otherwise disturb a snake, it will probably attempt to bite. The chances of this happening to soldiers traveling along trails or waterways are remote if soldiers are alert and careful. This does not mean that soldiers should be careless about the possibility of snakebites, but ordinary precautions against them are enough. Soldiers should be particularly watchful when clearing ground.

Treat all snakebites as poisonous.

CARNIVOROUS WILDLIFE

Meat-eating reptiles, mammals, and other creatures often live in tropical areas. On some planets, they are protected from hunters by local laws and live on large preserves. In areas where the beasts are not protected, they are often shy and seldom seen. When encountered, they will often attempt to escape. All large animals can be dangerous if cornered or suddenly startled at close quarters. This is especially true of females with young. Some planets, however, have fauna which are actively aggressive predators. It is important for Legion troopers to learn about the local wildlife and the threat it may present.

Certain jungle animals may have been domesticated by the local people. Soldiers should also avoid these animals. They may appear tame, but this tameness extends only to people the animals are familiar with.

POISONOUS AND CARNIVOROUS VEGETATION

Another area of danger is that of poisonous plants and trees. For example, nettles, particularly tree nettles, are one of the dangerous items of vegetation. These nettles have a severe stinging that will quickly educate the victim to recognize the plant. Many planets have poisonous vegetation, some of the dangers associated with such vegetation can be avoided by keeping sleeves down and wearing gloves when practical. Thorny thickets, such as rattan, should be avoided. On some planets, carnivorous plants may be a threat to troops, who must be trained to recognize and avoid them.

HEALTH AND HYGIENE

The climate in tropical areas and the absence of sanitation facilities increase the chance that soldiers may contract a disease. Disease is fought with good sanitation practices and preventive medicine. In many wars, diseases account for a significantly high percentage of casualties.

Before going into a jungle area, leaders must:

• Make sure immunizations are current.
• Get soldiers in top physical shape.
• Instruct soldiers in personal hygiene.

Upon arrival in the jungle area, leaders must:

• Allow time to adjust (acclimate) to the new environment.
• Never limit the amount of water soldiers drink. (It is very important to replace the fluids lost through sweating.)
• Instruct soldiers on the sources of disease. Insects cause many diseases. Other diseases are caused by dirty food and contaminated water.

WATERBORNE DISEASES

Water is vital in the jungle and is usually easy to find. However, water from natural sources should be considered contaminated. Water purification procedures must be taught to all soldiers. Germs of serious diseases, like dysentery, are found in impure water. Other waterborne diseases, such as blood fluke, are caused by exposure of an open sore to impure water.

Soldiers can prevent waterborne diseases by:

• Obtaining drinking water from approved engineer water points.
• Using rainwater; however, rainwater should be collected after it has been raining at least 15 to 30 minutes. This lessens the chances of impurity being washed from the jungle canopy into the water container. Even then the water should be purified.
• Insuring that all drinking water is purified.
• Not swimming or bathing in untreated water.
• Keeping the body fully clothed when crossing water obstacles.

FUNGUS DISEASES

These diseases are caused by poor personal health practices. The jungle environment promotes fungus and bacterial diseases of the skin and warm water immersion skin diseases. Bacteria and fungi are tiny plants which multiply fast under the hot, moist conditions of the jungle. Sweat-soaked skin invites fungus attack. The following are common skin diseases that are caused by long periods of wetness of the skin:

Warm Water Immersion Foot - This disease occurs usually where there are many creeks, streams, and canals to cross, with dry ground in between. The bottoms of the feet become white, wrinkled, and tender. Walking becomes painful.

Chafing - This disease occurs when soldiers must often wade through water up to their waists, and the trousers stay wet for hours. The crotch area becomes red and painful to even the lightest touch.

Most skin diseases are treated by letting the skin dry.

To prevent these diseases, soldiers should:

• Bathe often, and air- or sun-dry the body as often as possible.
• Wear clean, dry, loose-fitting clothing whenever possible.
• Not sleep in wet, dirty clothing. Soldiers should carry one dry set of clothes just for sleeping. Dirty clothing, even if wet, is put on again in the morning. This practice not only fights fungus, bacterial, and warm water immersion diseases but also prevents chills and allows soldiers to rest better.
• Not wear underwear during wet weather. Underwear dries slower than jungle fatigues, and causes severe chafing.
• Take off boots and message feet as often as possible.
• Dust feet, socks, and boots with foot powder at every chance.
• Always carry several pairs of socks and change them frequently.
• Keep hair cut short.

HEAT INJURIES

These result from high temperatures, high humidity, lack of air circulation, and physical exertion. All soldiers must be trained to prevent heat disorders.

Heat injuries are prevented by:

• Drinking plenty of water.
• Using extra salt with food and water.
• Slowing down movement.

NAVIGATION

Navigation in thick jungle areas is difficult even for the most experienced navigators. Soldiers navigating in the jungle must use various aids. The compass is an obvious aid, as is a GPI on planets where available,but a soldier would never be able to move very fast in the jungle if he had to constantly move along a magnetic azimuth or in accordance with coordinates. Movement along a terrain feature, such as a ridgeline, is easier but can be extremely dangerous when establishing a pattern of consistency. A soldier must trust the compass, map, and pace count. A soldier should not keep his eyes riveted on the compass; however, it should be used as a check.

The shadows caused by the sun are an easily observed and accurate aid to direction. Allowances must be made for the gradual displacement of the shadows as the sun moves across the sky. Allowances must also be made for planets with unusual astronomical features (double suns, large and/or multiple moons, etc.).

Other aids to maintaining direction include prominent objects, the course of rivers, prevailing winds, the stars, and the moon(s).

OBSERVATION

All movements of animals and men are marked by tracks and signs. Soldiers must learn to read signs left in soft ground, in streambeds, on roads and trails, and near watering places and salt licks. Animals seldom move without a reason; a few fresh tracks supply information about their maker, his direction, and probable intentions.

Animals usually avoid man. The animals, their tracks, and their behavior can reveal whether or not men are in the area. Jungle fighters can listen to the cries of animals and learn to recognize their alarm calls.

The ability to track and to recognize signs in the jungle are valuable skills. Throughout the soldier's time in the jungle, he should practice these skills.

USE OF THE HUMAN SENSES

In the jungle, the three most useful senses of the five senses are smell, touch, and hearing.

SMELL - Your sense of smell can give you advanced warning of the enemy, often well before you see him. Cigarette smoke can be detected up to one-quarter of a mile away if the wind conditions are right. You can smell fish, garlic, and other foods being cooked for several hundred meters. You may be able to detect a person who has been using scented soap or eating specific foods from up to 100 meters away, thus discovering an ambush before walking into it.

There are many types of wood used for fuel in the jungle. Some are good for making cooking fires, while others are only burned to repel insects or ward off the night chill in highland jungles. Being able to identify the smell of some of these woods may allow you to determine the purpose and general location of the fire.

For the person who seldom uses scented soap, after-shave lotion, or other such toiletries, it is easy to detect a person using these items at a considerable distance. In some areas of the world, the best way to prevent detection is not to use them. A good rule to follow is that if the local indigenous population does not use it, you should not use it either.

A final item that has a distinctive odor is explosives. Use surgical gloves to handle explosives when you can. Then put the used gloves in a sealed bag. Always have one squad member who stays upwind of the explosives. He can then check to see if you are detectable at a distance. Also, make sure you package and seal all charges to where the scent of explosives is not detectable at a distance.

TOUCH - You may find yourself having to search buildings, tunnels, or enemy dead at night with no means of illumination or when illumination is unwise due to the tactical situation. To use the sense of touch to identify an object, you must consider four factors:

• Shape refers to the general outline of the object.
• Moisture refers to the moisture content of the object. Is it wetter or drier than the immediate surroundings?
• Temperature is the object's heat in relation to the surrounding environment.
• Texture is the smoothness or roughness of the object.

By taking the four factors into consideration, you should be able to identify most basic objects. An example might be the searching of a dead enemy. You may feel his trousers and realize that they are moister than his shirt, indicating he crossed water recently. Upon touching his boots, you realize they are moist, covered with mud, and that the tread is well worn. This would confirm the crossing of water and indicate that he was an experienced soldier. The warmth of his body indicates that he was moving rapidly. The shape of the insignia on his collar indicates that he was an officer. All combine to give you a good idea of who he is and what he was doing in the last few hours of his life.

Touch is also useful in detecting trip wires. There are several methods. One is to use your exposed skin to feel for them. Another is to search by holding a very fine branch in front of you. If it strikes anything, you will feel it without triggering the trip wire. Still another is to use a piece of wire with a small weight on one end, hanging down from a stick. Held before you as you walk, it will detect trip wires without triggering them.

HEARING - The sound of a safety catch being released or a bolt slamming home could warn you of an ambush or a sniper. The sudden sound of animals moving or dogs—or dog analogues--barking may indicate enemy movement. It may also warn the enemy of your movements. However, do not automatically assume that humans caused the disturbance. Many jungles are home to large predators who can spook game or cause dogs to bark.

Similarly, sudden cessation of normal wildlife sounds may indicate passage of the enemy, or an animal's or a bird's detection of you. Thus, it is important to become familiar with the distress and warning cries of birds and wild animals in the area of operation. Also the sound of a man talking, running, or crawling is important to recognize.

When performing reconnaissance, always move cautiously enough to hear sounds made by the enemy before they see you.

Other important sounds that you must be able to recognize are the sound of the striker of a hand grenade and the sound of its handle flying off. Sound can also assist you in determining the range to an explosion or blast.

If you can see the flash of the explosion and can determine the number of seconds from the flash to the time you hear the sound, you can determine the approximate range. Sound travels at approximately 400 meters per second. With a little practice, you can learn to determine the range to enemy weapons systems.

Whenever you hear a noise, rotate your body with your hand cupped over your ears. In addition, open your mouth slightly. When the noise is the loudest, you are pointing in its general direction. When there is no wind, air currents generally carry sound downhill at night and uphill during daylight due to changes in ambient air temperature.